Ethics in the Healthcare Setting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethics in the Healthcare Setting - Essay Example Mr. Robinson is not wrong in administering the medication because the real intent of administering the medication is to relieve patient from immense pain, even though he is known to the fact that the medicine might speed the death of the patient. Patients believe death or assisted suicide is a treatment for controlling the symptom of pain, but health care professional do not need to perceive assisted suicide as an alternative, rather they can treat the health conditions experienced by patients through different ways (Abrahm, 2000, p.325). American Nurses Association states that nurses should look for ways to help relax the symptoms experienced by patients before death such as extreme pain although these methods of relieving can result in hastening of the death process of a patient. Therefore, Dr. Robinson should exercise the administration of the drug on Mr. Mills to help relax his pain even if his life has a threat to become shorter due to this activity (ANA, 1985, p.4). According to Judith Schwarz, health care practitioners such as physicians and nurses may take advantage of the double effect reasoning to save themselves from legal issues. Schwarz even stated that the use of morphine might be conducted with intention of assisting patients in suicide but during inquiry, practitioners state that they used the medicine with the intention of decreasing pain and not with the intention of assisting patients in committing suicide (Schwarz, 2007). According to the consequentialism, the most important aspect of any decision is the outcome of that decision (Duncan, 2010, p.46) . The theory further states that while conducting an act, an individual should have the intention of maximizing those outcomes that are morally important. For example if the aim of conducting an act is to maximize happiness, the use of morphine drug is correct, this is because the drug with maximize

Global Energy Consumption Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Global Energy Consumption - Essay Example As the report stresses  coal is a mineral that is mined either in underground mines or surface mines. Exploration is a process of gathering geological information from a number of different sources including existing data, seismic instrumentation, and geographical observation. Holes are drilled into the selected areas to determine the size and quality of the coal bed. Contributing to today's modern exploration methods are "microelectronics-based technology, such as; personal computers, digital down-hole logging, remote sensing, global-positioning systems, and vastly improved communications".This paper declares that  crude oil is drilled from wells located beneath the surface of the earth by forcing it up when pressure is applied inside the well. In addition, there are oil reserves beneath the oceans and other bodies of water that are tapped by offshore oilrigs. It is transported around the world on ships known as super-tankers, where it is off loaded at refineries typically built along the coast around the world. The quantity of oil, the quality, and the size of the oil field all impact the value of the field. Oil exploration is accomplished by utilizing the geological history of an area in conjunction with radar, sonar, sounding, and data acquisition techniques that look beneath the surface and reveal what may lie below.  Eventually, test wells are drilled to determine the depth of the oil, the quantity, and obtain more precise information on the layout of the field. ... Natural gas is a natural byproduct of fossil fuels and is found associated with oil fields and coal beds. A major problem with natural gas is transportation, which must be done primarily by pipeline. This limits it to inland applications, as trans-oceanic pipelines are impractical. Coal shale is a relatively new source of oil and extraction technologies are still being developed and improved. The process depends on the oil that is embedded in the rock and the sand where oil has accumulated. It is estimated that there is enough oil in the US oil shale reserves to meet our present oil demands for the next 200 years (The Benefits of Oil Shale Production, 2007). However, the process of grinding the shale rock and heating it to separate the material is an expensive process. In addition, moving the oil from the fields to the refineries within the US must be done by truck, and could also become expensive. At today's oil prices, it may be impractical, though with escalating demand and diminishing supplies its economic outlook may improve in the future (The Benefits of Oil Shale Production). In addition, it would free the US from the political concerns encountered when acquiring crude oil. There has recently been some debate within the Senate that would favor offshore oil drilling off the coast of the US. Advocates contend it is a necessary step to reduce our dependence on foreign oil. However, critics maintain that the amount is so limited and the production so far in the future that it will only have a marginal effect on supply or price (Jervis, Welch, & Wolf, 2008). In addition, environmentalists have objected to the lifting of

The impact of the economic crisis in the Saudi economy Dissertation

The impact of the economic crisis in the Saudi economy - Dissertation Example The project deals with the impact of economic crisis in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia is a key player in the scenario of international trade, imports and exports. The effect of the economic crisis in Saudi Arabia has been compared with the impacts on the leading economies of the world which provides a comprehensive picture of the global effects of the economic crisis. Introduction Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy and is ruled by King Abdallah Bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud who promises of greater political participation and has been able to win the confidence of majority of the Sunni population. The economy of Saudi Arabia is based on its rich amount of oil reserves. Oil is the main resource of the economy. The country possesses around 18% of the proven reserves of petroleum in the world. Saudi Arabia is also the leading exporter of petroleum in the world. Saudi Arabia because of its rich reserves of petroleum plays the leading role in the Organisation for Oil Exporting countries. . The OPE C was created in order to ensure a steady income of the members of the organisation and also to secure the supply of oil to the consumer states all over the world. The economy of Saudi Arabia was initially dependent on agricultural with the work of agriculture one by the nomadic people who lived in the country. The discovery of oil in the country occurred in 1930 from where the kingdom of Saudi Arabia started to gain comparative advantage over the other countries in the world. According to World Bank, Saudi Arabia’s economy has been referred to as the strongest economy among the Arab nations. Thus the economy of Saudi Arabia underwent a transition from an agriculture based economy prior to 1930 to an industrial economy after the discovery of oil in 1930. The GDP grew at rapid rates due to availability of huge proven reserves of petroleum and gaining comparative advantage which led to rise in exports. The country’s foreign exchange reserves grew enormously giving a scop e for developments of infrastructure for industries in the kingdom. As a result of the recent economic crisis all over the world and reduction in GDP per capita of Saudi Arabia, the government has undertaken policy reforms of diversification of the economy, strengthening the regulatory framework and the legal system and allowing foreign investments in order provide employments opportunities to the swelling population and also to sustain their economic growth rates. The impacts of the economic crisis in the economy of Saudi Arabia lay its roots in the recession that occurred in US and subsequently spread to major economies like UK and other parts of the world thereby transforming into a global financial meltdown. The international economic scenario underwent radical changes with recession in the economy of US and its subsequent effects on the economies all over the world. This created major impacts in the economies of the world including that of western economies like, European natio ns, East Asia and partly in South Asia. The financial crisis which emerged in the year 2007 started with a bubble in 2002 in the housing

Color and the Visible Spectrum Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Color and the Visible Spectrum - Research Paper Example The electromagnetic spectrum offers various ranges of colours that can be observed by the human eye. The visible spectrum ranges from 390 nanometers to 780 nanometers. Moreover, the electromagnetic spectrum has light frequencies that are either too low or too high for humans to see, for example, the ultraviolet that is located past the infrared, found in the red part of the visible light spectrum (Cao & Cui, 100) Visible spectrum is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be observed by the human eyes. The frequency and the wavelength are often inversely proportional. A rise in frequency causes a decrease in wavelength as well as an increase in the energy associated with the photon. Radiations with longer wavelength, infrared and visible light are non-ionizing radiation because ionizing radiations entail UV light, gamma rays and X-rays. The limit between now- ionizing and ionizing radiation is found within the ultraviolet regions (Eugene Hecht, 50). Pure colours or spectra are those colours that are made up of only one wavelength. Visible wavelengths go through optical window which is defined as the region in the electromagnetic spectrum that permits wavelengths to go through the earth’s atmosphere. The midday skies often appear blue as a result of clean air scattering it more than red wavelength. The optical window is also known as visible window. In the thirteenth century, Roger Bacon asserted that rainbows developed in the same way as light passing through a crystal or prism. Isaac Newton discovered that prisms could reassemble and disassemble white light and illustrated the finding in his books about optics. He observed that a fraction of beam of light is reflected while other fractions go through the prism when a narrow beam of light strikes the face of a glass prism (Eugene Hecht, 50). The beam of light that goes through the glass often appeared as colored bands. Newton hypothesized that light comprises of

School Funding Essay Example for Free

School Funding Essay Youre a ninth grader at a school in Philadelphia. The neighborhood is poor, even if not all of the students are. Your school has very little money for things like computers or technology. You walk into second period one day, sit down, and discover that the floor next to your desk is damp. The teacher explains that there is a leak in the roof, and that the school cant afford to fix it. The school cant afford to fix the leak or buy computers because it is inadequately funded. So the government kindly lends your school the money to not only fix the leak, but buy computers. But does that necessarily motivate you to improve your grades? Do you suddenly decide to do your homework because the leak is fixed? Probably not. The government sees that your grades remained the same, and two years later, when our school needs to hire more teachers and make the classes smaller, the government denies the school that money. They say that since money didnt help your grades last time, why should it help you now? But the truth is that smaller classes and better teachers do improve student achievement. Members of our government claim that giving more money to schools will not make a difference, but the government funding for schools needs to be used effectively to see a change in student performance. (Connell) The reason that some schools cant do things like buy computers and maintain their buildings to begin with is because the school funding system is so ineffective. The US government pays only 7% of all school money, and the rest is up to the states and the tax payers. Whatever money the states wont pay is paid as school tax, part of your property taxes, which are higher or lower depending on how much your home is worth. But this means that schools in poor neighborhoods get little money while wealthy schools, like ours, get nearly all they need. You dont see any leaky roofs in our school. Even if the state pays a lot of money, that still doesnt mean that the schools are well funded. In Hawaii, there is only one school district, and the state pays for nearly all of that districts funding. Only 2% comes from property tax, and the rest comes out of income tax. But think about the industry in Hawaii- farming and tourism, two low income industries. 73% of Hawaiis schools report a need for expensive building repair that they cant afford on their own, and there is only one computer for every sixteen students. Even funded evenly by the state, Hawaiis schools are still under funded, and it has been predicted that by 2010, Hawaii will need 760 new classrooms. (National Education Association. ) Where will this money come from? It is up to the national government to make the difference in school funding. Take Pennsylvania for example. The Philadelphia school district is near bankruptcy. The debate goes on over whether to privatize the schools or not. If the schools are privatized, it means that a wealthy company will take over the district and fund it. The only problem with this is that the company now has the power to control everything in the district, including teacher salary, equipment, and even curriculum. Now if you were a business owner looking to make money, and not looking to educate children, you would most likely chose to change the curriculum to fit your own financial ambitions. It would be completely within the limits of the law for the company that owned these schools to dumb down the curriculum in order to save money, thus lowering the level of education received by students in Philadelphia. And what would be the first to go? Sports, Art, music, drama, and any other subject that isnt included on the standardized tests or SATs. How would you like to go to a school where there is no football team, no marching band, no cheerleading, no chorus, no trips to the State Drama Conference? Thats where schools in Philadelphia are headed. (Snyder) Compare that to my school district, just a short drive away. Every teacher has a laptop and every student has Internet access. Were looking at new classrooms of the future, where every kid gets a personal computer and all board work is done on a high tech projector. We have a Frisbee team, for heavens sake. And some schools dont even have money for textbooks. Inequality in school funding is so widespread that fixing it would mean a lot of work for government officials. But while they ponder how to fix it, the least they could do is help out the already failing schools. Nearly one fifth of all schools are considered high poverty, which means that three quarters of the students in these school qualify for free or reduced lunch. A study of 40,000 students by the US Department of Education showed that students in poor school districts, even if they came from wealthy to middle class families, scored two grade levels lower than the national average in math, and four levels lower in reading. (Overview) The government needs to be willing to help these schools with things like staff training and building maintenance. They should not hold it against the school if revamping the building doesnt improve student grades. What the government is doing, in essence, in punishing the victims of its own inept system. The assumption that money doesnt help kids in school is just that- an assumption. Money can make a huge difference, but a lot of the time it is wasted or used inappropriately. One school district began a highly expensive program to help kids doing poorly in school. The aides helping with the program did exactly what they were told, and reported all the progress made by kids in the program, which was little. It was a long time before the teachers participating in the program realized that it was useless, and that the money had been wasted. (Connell) If the National government is going to help fund failing schools, those schools do need to be held, to a certain extent, accountable for that money. In Philadelphia, so much money was wasted that the sate and national government now refuse to help fund it any longer. What is needed is a system to make sure that money given to the school is used effectively, so a tragedy like Philadelphia doesnt repeat itself. It is also important to remember that computers do not heal all wounds- they are not a magic pill to improve grades. But teachers are. The important thing in school is teaching. A recent study showed the link between class size and grades by placing a random selection of children into three groups- a large group with one teacher, a medium group with two teachers, and a small group with one teacher. It was shown that kids in smaller classes with well trained teachers did much better than those in larger classes, even if the teacher had an aide to help. And the students who benefited the most, believe it or not, were those who came from families with less income. (Connell) Why? Possibly because they dont receive that kind of one on one attention at home, or possibly just because a smaller class is easier for a teacher to handle. Either way, the goal is achieved. Kids who live in the city and poorer neighborhoods deserve the same education as the rest of us, and if their schools cant pay for it, the government should. Helping the country is the governments job, but how are they able to help anyone if they cant start with Americas children? Our constitution states that All men are created equal, but these day that means kids too. Our education sets the tone for the rest of our lives-from getting a job to providing for a family and having knowledge of the real world. Giving some students a better education than others, just because of the value of their home, is unconstitutional. If the present system doesnt provide the resources for schools to provide an equal education for all, then the government needs to pick up the slack of their own system. The money given to the schools by the government must be used effectively if a change is desired, and the way to do that is by hiring better teachers and making class size smaller. If the school itself cannot afford to educate its students, then the government needs to provide the school with the money to do so. Theyre Americas children too. Works Cited Overview. School Funding Inequity.  ©2000. Noreen Connell. Under Funded Schools-Why Money Matters. School funding Inequity. March/April 1998.  ©2000. NEA Government Relations. School Modernization Facts- Hawaii. National Education Association Website. May 23, 2001. Susan Snyder. PA to study school district finances The Philadelphia Inquirer. December 4, 2001. Julie green and Erica Lepping. Education Report- Shows Poverty Linked to Student Achievement. School Funding Inequity. Sptember 8, 1998.  ©2000. Funding Schools Appropriately Youre a ninth grader at a school in Philadelphia. The neighborhood is poor, even if not all of the students are. Your school has very little money for things like computers or technology. You walk into second period one day, sit down, and discover that the floor next to your desk is damp. The teacher explains that there is a leak in the roof, and that the school cant afford to fix it. The school cant afford to fix the leak or buy computers because it is inadequately funded. So the government kindly lends your school the money to not only fix the leak, but buy computers. But does that necessarily motivate you to improve your grades? Do you suddenly decide to do your homework because the leak is fixed? Probably not. The government sees that your grades remained the same, and two years later, when our school needs to hire more teachers and make the classes smaller, the government denies the school that money. They say that since money didnt help your grades last time, why should it help you now? But the truth is that smaller classes and better teachers do improve student achievement. Members of our government claim that giving more money to schools will not make a difference, but the government funding for schools needs to be used effectively to see a change in student performance. (Connell) The reason that some schools cant do things like buy computers and maintain their buildings to begin with is because the school funding system is so ineffective. The US government pays only 7% of all school money, and the rest is up to the states and the tax payers. Whatever money the states wont pay is paid as school tax, part of your property taxes, which are higher or lower depending on how much your home is worth. But this means that schools in poor neighborhoods get little money while wealthy schools, like ours, get nearly all they need. You dont see any leaky roofs in our school. Even if the state pays a lot of money, that still doesnt mean that the schools are well funded. In Hawaii, there is only one school district, and  the state pays for nearly all of that districts funding. Only 2% comes from property tax, and the rest comes out of income tax. But think about the industry in Hawaii- farming and tourism, two low income industries. 73% of Hawaiis schools report a need for expensive building repair that they cant afford on their own, and there is only one computer for every sixteen students. Even funded evenly by the state, Hawaiis schools are still under funded, and it has been predicted that by 2010, Hawaii will need 760 new classrooms. (National Education Association. ) Where will this money come from? It is up to the national government to make the difference in school funding. Take Pennsylvania for example. The Philadelphia school district is near bankruptcy. The debate goes on over whether to privatize the schools or not. If the schools are privatized, it means that a wealthy company will take over the district and fund it. The only problem with this is that the company now has the power to control everything in the district, including teacher salary, equipment, and even curriculum. Now if you were a business owner looking to make money, and not looking to educate children, you would most likely chose to change the curriculum to fit your own financial ambitions. It would be completely within the limits of the law for the company that owned these schools to dumb down the curriculum in order to save money, thus lowering the level of education received by students in Philadelphia. And what would be the first to go? Sports, Art, music, drama, and any other subject that isnt included on the standardized tests or SATs. How would you like to go to a school where there is no football team, no marching band, no cheerleading, no chorus, no trips to the State Drama Conference? Thats where schools in Philadelphia are headed. (Snyder) Compare that to my school district, just a short drive away. Every teacher has a laptop and every student has Internet access. Were looking at new classrooms of the future, where every kid gets a personal computer and all board work is done on a high tech projector. We have a Frisbee team, for heavens sake. And some schools dont even have money for textbooks. Inequality in school funding is so widespread that fixing it would mean a lot of work for government officials. But while they ponder how to fix it, the least they could do is help out the already failing schools. Nearly one fifth of all schools are considered high poverty, which means that three quarters of the students in these school qualify for free or reduced lunch. A study of 40,000 students by the US Department of Education showed that students in poor school districts, even if they came from wealthy to middle class families, scored two grade levels lower than the national average in math, and four levels lower in reading. (Overview) The government needs to be willing to help these schools with things like staff training and building maintenance. They should not hold it against the school if revamping the building doesnt improve student grades. What the government is doing, in essence, in punishing the victims of its own inept system. The assumption that money doesnt help kids in school is just that- an assumption. Money can make a huge difference, but a lot of the time it is wasted or used inappropriately. One school district began a highly expensive program to help kids doing poorly in school. The aides helping with the program did exactly what they were told, and reported all the progress made by kids in the program, which was little. It was a long time before the teachers participating in the program realized that it was useless, and that the money had been wasted. (Connell) If the National government is going to help fund failing schools, those schools do need to be held, to a certain extent, accountable for that money. In Philadelphia, so much money was wasted that the sate and national government now refuse to help fund it any longer. What is needed is a system to make sure that money given to the school is used effectively, so a tragedy like Philadelphia doesnt repeat itself. It is also important to remember that computers do not heal all wounds- they are not a magic pill to improve grades. But teachers are. The important thing in school is teaching. A recent study showed the link between class size and grades by placing a random selection of children into three groups- a large group with one teacher, a medium group with two teachers, and a small group with one teacher. It was shown that kids in smaller classes with well trained teachers did much better than those in larger classes, even if the teacher had an aide to help. And the students who benefited the most, believe it or not, were those who came from families with less income. (Connell) Why? Possibly because they dont receive that kind of one on one attention at home, or possibly just because a smaller class is easier for a teacher to handle. Either way, the goal is achieved. Kids who live in the city and poorer neighborhoods deserve the same education as the rest of us, and if their schools cant pay for it, the government should. Helping the country is the governments job, but how are they able to help anyone if they cant start with Americas children? Our constitution states that All men are created equal, but these day that means kids too. Our education sets the tone for the rest of our lives-from getting a job to providing for a family and having knowledge of the real world. Giving some students a better education than others, just because of the value of their home, is unconstitutional. If the present system doesnt provide the resources for schools to provide an equal education for all, then the government needs to pick up the slack of their own system. The money given to the schools by the government must be used effectively if a change is desired, and the way to do that is by hiring better teachers and making class size smaller. If the school itself cannot afford to educate its students, then the government needs to provide the school with the money to do so. Theyre Americas children too. Works Cited Overview. School Funding Inequity.  ©2000. Noreen Connell. Under Funded Schools-Why Money Matters. School funding Inequity. March/April 1998.  ©2000. NEA Government Relations. School Modernization Facts- Hawaii. National Education Association Website. May 23, 2001. Susan Snyder. PA to study school district finances The Philadelphia Inquirer. December 4, 2001. Julie green and Erica Lepping. Education Report- Shows Poverty Linked to Student Achievement. School Funding Inequity. Sptember 8, 1998.  ©2000.

The Negative Impacts Of Cruise Tourism Tourism Essay

The Negative Impacts Of Cruise Tourism Tourism Essay 1. Introduction Nowadays, cruise tourism plays an important role in the tourism industry. Cruise ships become newer, larger and more comfortable so that nearly every need of the customers can be satisfied on the high seas. Capabilities like theaters, cinemas, fitness clubs, discotheques, casinos, tennis courts and many others are common on most modern cruise ships. Moreover, that most of the named activities are already included in the price. Thereby the ships beat about all the seven oceans to the most beautiful places on earth like for instance the Caribbean. But all these glorious sounding features involve several negative environmental problems. Cruise ships contaminate the seas with tons of waste and sewage which causes decreases of biodiversity, coral reefs and of course the water quality. Mass tourism harms and destroys ecological systems like beaches and reefs. This examination is about the impacts of cruise tourism to the environment and contingencies how to make cruise tourism more sustain able. 2. Utilization of resources Cruise tourism requires an abundance of resources and produces quantities of waste. A typical Caribbean cruise ship produces about 50tons of waste, 7.5 million liter potable water, 800.000 liter wastewater and 130.000 liter oleiferous water. Approximately 75% of all produced wastewater are caused by cruise ships. Between 1993 and 1998 over 100 cases of marine pollutions were investigated in the Caribbean. The estimate number of unknown cases might exceed this number many times over because the disposal of wastewater takes place in aquatic environments where environmental pollution is permitted on payment of a fee. Furthermore the cruise industry requires a convenient super- and infrastructure at their destinations which often overwhelms the financial capability of the regions and causes a dependency to the cruise tourism. 3. General information about the impact of the cruise tourism industry The entire tourism industry has positive as well as negative impacts on the economy, the culture and the environment. Thereby the cruise industry is no exception. Being an in Niche market the cruise industrys impact is higher-than average. By establishing more than 450,000 employments with salaries of 15 billion US-Dollars in the whole and a turnover of some billion dollars above all the cruise industry in the USA has a great impact on the economy. Furthermore a big impact on the governments revenues and expenditures is notable. The revenues of local governments consist like following: Taxes paid on turnovers by cruise passenger, the crew and the cruise line Temporarily taxes on accommodations that are paid by passengers Revenues in fees paid by passengers as well as by the cruise line, including fees for calling at a port, cleaning and other expenditures on a harbor Fees for recycling and the use of water Fees for passengers, including admission charge and payments for medical provision Tax payment of companies which distribute products and services to cruise lines passengers taxes paid by enterprises Operational costs on- site Secondary or indirect tax revenues like payment of property tax by employees of the cruise lines and their families 4. Possibilities to create sustainable cruise tourism The Cruise tourism encompasses different segments and sub segments. Aspects of sustainability in the sense of ecological sustainability play in most of the sub-segments of cruise tourism a more or less important role. All indications are that the cruise industry, in its own interest, tries to eliminate these negative impacts as fast as possible. Potential Reasons, as the fact that one of the most important subareas of cruise industry, the Caribbean, cannot comply the conception of sustainable tourism in the sense of the definition of sustainability mentioned in the Bruntland Report, have to be searched on the academic and socio-cultural level. To find concrete evidence on these levels seems to be difficult. Although the cruise tourism initiate doubtless economical impulses on the destinations, the essentially effects on the long term local development remain to be unrealized. The relation between costs and benefits on the environmental level as well as on the socio- cultural level seems to be unbalanced what a disadvantage of the destinations is. A quantification of this context owes. With the undersigning of a pioneering nature protection agreement on January 15th 2008, re-experienced the 12-month collaboration of Conservation International, the tourism agency of Cozumel, and the Florida-Caribbean Cruise Association its climax. Cruise industry representatives from the government, private enterprise association and cruise ship association were part of this contract. With the undersigning of this arrangement the contractual partners originated a significant nature conservancy initiative which should help to protect the vulnerable biodiversity of the most popular cruise destination on earth Cozumel, Mexico. In the year 2006 the island employed about 1000 workers for cruise ships, which brought an estimate number of 2.6 million cruise passengers to Cozumel. During peak times up to nine cruise ships with over 10.000 tourists reach the islands harbor daily. The rapid growing of the cruise tourism industry led to a heavy burden for the environment. The agreement composes the fundament for sustainable cruise tourism which will be achieved with the following projects: The creation of more awareness for environmental problems among the cruise tourists, tour operators and within the local community Improvement of the infrastructure of the island (especially the transportation- and waste-management) Increased security for the coral reef Indemnity of the strict observance of current laws These projects were developed during a range of workshops by groups of different stakeholders. Hereby over 80 leading representatives of the cruise tourism were brought together in order to pinpoint important environmental aspects and to achieve a common accomplishment for these projects. This common planning process is worldwide the first of its kind in the cruise tourism. Therefore Cozumel is the only cruise ship destination which helps to prevent its nature and biodiversity. Leading representatives of the cruise tourism established the so-called Stewardship Working Group which is supposed to implement objectives mentioned in the environment protection agreement. Following objectives are on the agenda: Every cruise ship passenger will see a 30 second information-movie in which he will appealed to handle sustainable in order to protect the nature In a photo exhibition, nearby the landing stage, the passengers will see the unspoilt districts of the island All tour-boats on the island have their own recycling system In the next step the representatives will evolve awareness campaigns which involve not only the cruise tourists but also the tour operator and hosts. Approximately over 500.000 cruise tourists will be involved in such campaigns. 5. Particular sensitive sea area The cruise industry will be confronted with several challenges related to environmental issues in the future. These challenges relate to the activities in the oceans, especially in and around important nature protection areas. The international Maritime Organization (IMO) recognized that issue and initiated counteractions, the so called Particular Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA). At present there exist 11 PSSAs. The effective guidelines of these areas commit all the governments of the IMO member- states to ensure that cruise lines which drive under their flag have to keep the methods of protection. The following 11 PSSAs were arranged: The Great Barrier Reef, Australia (1990) The Sabana-Camagà ¼ey Archipelago, Cuba (1996) The Malpelo Island, Colombia (2002) The Sea around the Florida Keys (2002) The Wadden Sea, Denmark, Norway, Germanys (2002) The Paracas National Reserve, Peru (2003) The western European Waters (2004) Enlargement of the existing PSSA of the Great Barrier Reef including the Torres Strait Islands (2005) The Canary Islands, Spain (2005) The Galapagos Archipelago, Ecuador (2005) The Baltic Sea, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Sweden (2005) The MARPOL Convention arranges three complementary methods for the contamination management: Reduction of waste products, Recycling and disposal of waste. With the agreement of the MARPOL Convention a cruise ship can convert its waste and dispose it on its own as well as leave the waste on a harbor for disposal either by store it, burn it or recycle it. 6. Studies and scientific literature In the more recent past only a small number of studies concerning the environmental impact of the cruise industry existed. For a considerable time a wide range of articles, reports, books, campaigns and websites occurred. The most informative subscription are scientific works (Cruise Ship Tourism, 2006, CABI), which interpret the concrete impacts of the cruise industry to the environment. The most considered researches were published by Ross Dowling and Ross Klein (Cruise Ship Blues The Underside of the Cruise Industry, 2002, and Cruise Ship Squeeze The New Pirates of the Seven Seas, 2005, New Society Publishers). Furthermore, Klein also operates to websites (www.cruisejunkie.com and www.cruiseresearch.org) where the visitor can find a varies number of resources like detailed lists of diseases, cancellations, suicides, passengers who fell overboard, powertrain problems, environmental incidents, health issues and many more. Between 2002 and 2006 over one thousand facts were collected. 7. Conclusion Although the cruise tourism has a huge negative impact on the environment there are still no homogenous regulations or laws to protect the ecological system. Even if some regions established such laws, regulations and awareness campaigns there are still huge areas of freedom to act in an environmentally harmful way. Due to the magnitude of the seas the direct environmental impacts are not clearly recognizable in a short time but they cause long-term damages. The new cruise ships which are bigger than ever before and the increasing demand in this tourism branch wont help to come to grips with this problem. In terms of achieving sustainable tourism it is, therefore, a sub-sector within which socio-economic, cultural and environmental considerations need to be continually analyzed, addressed and monitored. However, decision-makers in cruise tourism destinations, particularly those outside North America, need to work closely with operators to facilitate both integrated waste management and intergenerational and intra-societal equity rather than merely accept the prospect of short-term economic gain.

Laboratorio de Metalurgia Física

Laboratorio de Metalurgia Fà ­sica 5.1.3 Practicas en el Laboratorio de Metalurgia Fà ­sica Preparacià ³n Metalografà ­a de Muestras  · OBJETIVO Iniciar al estudiante en la preparacià ³n metalografà ­a de muestras y anà ¡lisis de las mismas.  · INTRODUCCIÓN TEÓRICA: Bajo el nombre de metalografà ­a se engloban toda una serie de tà ©cnicas y conocimientos cientà ­ficos cuyo fin à ºltimo es la observacià ³n tanto macroscà ³pica como microscà ³pica de las caracterà ­sticas estructurales de los metales y aleaciones. La presente prà ¡ctica de laboratorio se basa exclusivamente en la preparacià ³n de muestras (llamadas probetas) para la observacià ³n microscà ³pica de materiales metà ¡licos, a travà ©s del uso del microscopio à ³ptico metalogrà ¡fico (MO).  · La preparacià ³n metalogrà ¡fica Involucra una serie de pasos para obtener una probeta con una superficie perfectamente plana y libre de rayas al observarse bajo el microscopio à ³ptico. Primero se comienza seleccionando una muestra adecuada, cortà ¡ndola para llevarla a un tamaà ±o conveniente y de ser necesario se embute en una resina polimà ©rica o se monta en un sujetador mecà ¡nico para facilitar su manipulacià ³n. Posterior a esto, la superficie debe esmerilarse y lijarse hasta lograr la planaridad y luego pulirse con ayuda de discos rotativos cubiertos de fieltro impregnados de una suspensià ³n abrasiva, para eliminar las marcas del esmerilado. El pulido, provee en la mayorà ­a de los casos una superficie brillante tipo espejo. La observacià ³n al microscopio de muestras no-metà ¡licas, sean materiales cerà ¡micos o materiales compuestos sigue (por lo general) las mismas etapas del proceso de preparacià ³n de muestras metà ¡licas, aunque frecuentemente se requieren de instrumentos de corte y abrasivos de mayor dureza. Las tà ©cnicas y conocimientos para la preparacià ³n de este tipo de muestras se engloban en el tà ©rmino petrografà ­a.  · DESARROLLO EXPERIMENTAL: Materiales y Equipos †¢ Muestras metà ¡licas †¢ Cortadoras de disco. †¢ Esmeril de Cinta. †¢ Papeles de lija. †¢ Pulidoras Rotativas. †¢ Microscopio Óptico. †¢ Dispositivo de captura de imà ¡genes. †¢ Alcohol. †¢ Algodà ³n y recipiente para guardar las probetas  · DESBASTE GRUESO. †¢ Esmerile, en la esmeriladora de cinta, la superficie de la muestra hasta obtener una superficie plana, cuidando de mantener un flujo constante de refrigerante. †¢ Una vez que la superficie a observar està © totalmente plana, lave la muestra con abundante agua. Limpie el equipo. No deje residuos de refrigerante en los alrededores.  · DESBASTE FINO v Comenzando por el papel esmeril de menor nà ºmero, desbaste la muestra movià ©ndola sobre el papel abrasivo en una misma direccià ³n, de manera recà ­proca. La direccià ³n del movimiento debe ser perpendicular a las huellas del desbaste grueso. El proceso culmina al deben desaparecer las huellas del desgaste grueso por la abrasià ³n efectuada, o equivalentemente, cuando toda la superficie de la probeta està © cubierta por rayas paralelas a la direccià ³n de movimiento. v Lave muy bien su muestra con agua y colà ³quela, sobre el siguiente papel de esmeril, de manera tal que las rayas anteriores sean perpendiculares a las nuevas rayas. Repita el paso anterior, hasta que està ©n borradas la totalidad de las rayas generadas en el paso anterior. Puede ir chequeando con regularidad la desaparicià ³n de las rayas observando al microscopio la superficie de la muestra. Asegà ºrese de secar muy bien la muestra antes de colocarla en el microscopio, para ello enjuà ¡guela con alcohol Repita el paso anterior hasta llegar al papel esmeril de menor nà ºmero. v Al finalizar, lave muy bien la probeta, con abundante agua y sus manos con agua y jabà ³n. Limpie con un paà ±o la mesa de lijas, asegà ºrese de no dejar charcos de agua luego de finalizado su trabajo.  · PULIDO Este es uno de los pasos mà ¡s crà ­ticos de la preparacià ³n metalogrà ¡fica, por lo tanto antes de comenzar, lave muy bien con abundante agua el paà ±o que va a utilizar, para evitar la presencia de restos de metal o abrasivos que puedan estropear su proceso de pulido. v Agregue una pequeà ±a cantidad del abrasivo de tamaà ±o de partà ­cula mà ¡s grueso (suspensià ³n de alà ºmina de 1 micrà ³n, generalmente) al paà ±o de pulido y gradà ºe el grifo hasta tener un goteo de agua constante. v Coloque la muestra sostenià ©ndola firmemente sobre el disco rotatorio ejerciendo una presià ³n moderada, para asegurar un pulido parejo y evitar que la probeta sea proyectada por el movimiento del disco. v La probeta debe moverse suavemente desde la periferia hacia el centro del paà ±o y viceversa. Tambià ©n puede girarse en sentido contrario al movimiento del disco. La tà ©cnica y destreza para efectuar el pulido dependerà ¡ en gran parte de la muestra en estudio. v Pida la opinià ³n de su instructor y de ser necesario (la mayorà ­a de las veces lo es) pase a otro paà ±o y continà ºe el pulido con abrasivo de tamaà ±o de partà ­cula mà ¡s fino (suspensià ³n de alà ºmina de 0,3 micrones, generalmente) o con algà ºn otro tipo de abrasivo, esto dependerà ¡ de la muestra que usted està © preparando. v Una vez que su muestra haya alcanzado una superficie plana tipo espejo, là ¡vela con abundante agua, rocà ­ela con alcohol, evitando la presencia de rastro alguno de humedad que pueda crear confusià ³n al momento del anà ¡lisis microscà ³pico. Una vez mà ¡s colabore con el mantenimiento del laboratorio y limpie, con un trapo, todo resto de agua y de suspensià ³n abrasiva que su trabajo haya podido dejar. v Observe su muestra pulida al microscopio, esta observacià ³n, dependiendo de la aleacià ³n, puede ser de significativa importancia a la hora de observar ciertos aspectos microestructurales, tales como ciertas fases e inclusiones, asà ­ como otros defectos propios del material (grietas y porosidades) e inclusive defectos generados en la etapa de pulido (colas de cometa y rayas). PRACTICA NO. 12 Ataque quà ­mico y microscà ³pica à ³ptica.  · OBJETIVOS †¢ Introducir al estudiante en la tà ©cnica del ataque quà ­mico como herramienta para revelar la microestructura de probetas preparadas metalogrà ¡ficamente. †¢ Conocer las partes constituyentes, usos y cuidados del Microscopio Óptico (MO)  · INTRODUCCIÓN TEÓRICA: Sin duda, desde el punto de vista cientà ­fico-tà ©cnico, el aliado mà ¡s importante del ingeniero de materiales es el microscopio, debido a que gracias a à ©l, se puede observar la microestructura, responsable directa del comportamiento mecà ¡nico y fisicoquà ­mico de los materiales. El microscopio utilizado para el anà ¡lisis microestructural de materiales se denomina microscopio à ³ptico metalogrà ¡fico (MO), el cual difiere de los microscopios comunes, en que funciona con luz reflejada sobre la muestra y no con luz transmitida a travà ©s de à ©sta. Luego del pulido, la microestructura del material se ve ocultada por una pequeà ±a capa de metal distorsionado y plà ¡sticamente deformado, que puede ser disuelto a travà ©s del uso de diversas sustancias quà ­micas, denominadas reactivos, las cuales actà ºan generando un proceso de corrosià ³n selectiva que permite, dependiendo del caso, hacer visibles aspectos microestructurales tales como los là ­mites de grano y las diferentes fases que conforman una aleacià ³n.  · PREPARACIÓN PREVIA: Antes de realizar la prà ¡ctica el estudiante debe indagar sobre los siguientes aspectos relacionados con el desarrollo de la misma: v Teorà ­a del ataque quà ­mico y reactivos quà ­micos mà ¡s usuales para el ataque de aleaciones ferrosas y no ferrosas. v Toxicidad y manejo de los reactivos indagados. v Teorà ­a del funcionamiento del microscopio metalogrà ¡fico y sus diferencias con el microscopio biolà ³gico. v Usos, partes constituyentes y cuidados del microscopio metalogrà ¡fico. Se recomienda ademà ¡s que el estudiante venga al momento de la prà ¡ctica preparado con suficiente algodà ³n para preservar su probeta, asà ­ como tambià ©n con un recipiente apropiado para resguardarla. Deberà ¡ tambià ©n procurarse un par de guantes de là ¡tex, de tipo cirujano, para las labores de ataque quà ­mico.  · DESARROLLO EXPERIMENTAL: Materiales y Equipos: †¢ Muestra (s) metà ¡lica (s) pulida (s). †¢ Reactivos quà ­micos. †¢ Pinzas para sujecià ³n de probetas. †¢ Guantes de Là ¡tex. †¢ Microscopio Óptico. †¢ Alcohol. †¢ Algodà ³n y recipiente para guardar las probetas.  · Procedimiento Experimental: . Ataque quà ­mico de la superficie pulida y observacià ³n al microscopio. Este es otro de los aspectos crà ­ticos de la preparacià ³n metalogrà ¡fica, y el que quizà ¡ requiere de mà ¡s cuidados a la hora de ser implantado. Cuà ­dese de evitar el contacto de los reactivos quà ­micos con su piel o con los ojos y utilice guantes de là ¡tex y pinzas para sujetar la probeta mientras la sumerge en los reactivos de ataque. Evite la aspiracià ³n de los gases generados durante la reaccià ³n de ataque y trate en lo posible de trabajar dentro de la campana de gases. †¢ Ataque su muestra con el reactivo que usted haya seleccionado de acuerdo a las caracterà ­sticas de su muestra. Existen varias tà ©cnicas, pero puede hacerlo por inmersià ³n de la superficie pulida en el reactivo, o pasando delicadamente un algodà ³n impregnado del reactivo sobre la superficie. Si tiene alguna duda plantà ©esela al instructor. †¢ Una vez completado el tiempo de ataque, lave cuidadosamente su muestra bajo el chorro de agua, rocà ­ela con alcohol. †¢ Observe la muestra al microscopio y si à ©sta resulta sobreatacada, repita el proceso de desbaste fino (lijado) desde el à ºltimo papel (grano mà ¡s fino) y vuelva a pulir en los paà ±os su muestra. Vuelva a atacar acortando el tiempo del proceso. Si la pieza resulta subatacada, sà ³lo tiene que continuar el ataque por mà ¡s tiempo. †¢ Observe muestra al microscopio bajo supervisià ³n del instructor, con ayuda del encargado del laboratorio y fundamentà ¡ndose en el criterio que debe haber desarrollado a la luz de sus conocimientos y de su preparacià ³n previa a la prà ¡ctica. PRà CTICA NO. 13 ENSAYO JOMINY * Objetivos 1.1 Aplicar el Mà ©todo Jominy para determinar la templabilidad de los aceros. 1.2 Interpretar los resultados del Ensayo Jominy. Aplicar estos resultados en la clasificacià ³n de los aceros en funcià ³n de la templabilidad. 1.3 Determinar el perfil de temperaturas y de velocidades de enfriamiento. 1.4 Relacionar las velocidades de enfriamiento con las microestructuras obtenidas en las diferentes zonas de la probeta Jominy. 1.5 Evaluar la eficiencia del sistema enfriante y corroborar la validez del ensayo Jominy. * Pre-laboratorio: Antes de realizar la prà ¡ctica el estudiante debe indagar sobre los siguientes aspectos, relacionados con el desarrollo de la misma. 3.1 Curvas Jominy para el acero a ser ensayado. 3.2 Influencia de los elementos de aleacià ³n en la templabilidad de los aceros. 3.3 Relacià ³n entre el Ensayo Jominy y las curvas tiempo temperatura transformacià ³n. 3.4 Factores que afectan a los ensayos de dureza y escala de dureza a utilizar. 3.5 Quà © puntos realmente interesan de la curva Jominy. 3.6 Caracterà ­sticas de las transformaciones perlà ­ticas y martensà ­ticas. 3.7 Caracterà ­sticas del Ensayo Jominy.  · Materiales Una probeta Jominy de acero AISI 1045, de dimensiones estandarizadas de acuerdo a la norma ASTM. Adicionalmente, à ©stas deben estar perforadas sobre la superficie opuesta al extremo a ser templado. * Procedimiento En el Laboratorio de Tratamientos Tà ©rmicos: Se introduce la probeta Jominy en el horno de tratamiento tà ©rmico, el cual ha sido precalentado a la temperatura de austenizacià ³n adecuada. La temperatura y el tiempo de permanencia de la probeta en el horno debe haber sido especificados y determinados por Ud. Recuerde: El cà ¡lculo adecuado de las variables de operacià ³n en este caso; temperatura y tiempo, influyen en forma determinante en los resultados del ensayo. Luego de haber transcurrido el tiempo de mantenimiento, extraiga rà ¡pidamente la probeta del horno y colà ³quela en el sostà ©n de la cuba Jominy. Anteriormente debe haber comprobado que dicha cuba cumple con todos los requisitos establecidos en la norma. Realice el enfriamiento durante el tiempo estipulado en la norma antes mencionada. Una vez transcurrido el tiempo de ensayo, retire la probeta del sostà ©n y termà ­nela de enfriar en agua. 5.1.4 Practicas en el Laboratorio de Maquinas-Herramientas CILINDRADO INTERIOR EN EL TORNO Objetivo Hacer un agujero de un dià ¡metro y longitud determinada a una pieza metà ¡lica Materiales y equipos Pieza metà ¡lica Broca Mandril Cuchilla para trabajar interior Refrigerante (taladrina) Torno Procedimiento 1 º Se coloca la pieza en el plato 2 º Se gradà ºa el torno a la velocidad adecuada 3 º Se monta el mandril en el cabezal mà ³vil y luego se coloca la broca en el mandril 4 º Se lleva el cabezal mà ³vil hasta que la punta de la broca roce el centro de la pieza 5 º Se acciona la palanca de arranque del torno y con una manivela que tiene el cabezal mà ³vil en la parte posterior se le da profundidad del agujero que se desea hacer; el ancho del agujero lo determina el dià ¡metro de la broca o la cantidad de corte que se le de al agujero con la cuchilla de interior FRESADORA La fresadora es una mà ¡quina herramienta en la cual la pieza està ¡ fija y la herramienta es la que gira para efectuar el corte. 1. Base 2. Cuerpo 3. Caja de cambio ce avances 4. Palanca para el cambio de los avances 5. Caja de cambio de velocidades 6. Tirante para la fijacià ³n del eje portafresa 7. Eje principal 8. Palanca para el cambio de las velocidades 9. Puente 10. Volante para el desplazamiento del puente 11. Eje portafresa 12. Soporte intermedio del eje portafresa 13. Guà ­as del puente 14. Soporte extremo del eje portafresa 15. Riostras 16. Ranura central de la mesa 17. Manivela para traslacià ³n horizontal de la mesa 18. Mesa 19. Guà ­as de la mesa 20. Volante para el desplazamiento transversal de la mesa 21. Volante para la traslacià ³n horizontal de la mesa 22. Guà ­as para el carro portamesa 22. Manivela para la traslacià ³n vertical de la mà ©nsula 23. Carro portamesa 24. Manivela para la traslacià ³n vertical de la mà ©nsula 25. Palanca para el desplazamiento automà ¡tico transversal y horizontal de la masa 26. Columna soporte de la mà ©nsula 27. Palanca para la fijacià ³n de la mà ©nsula 28. Palanca para la inversià ³n de avance 29. Husillo para la traslacià ³n vertical de la mà ©nsula 30. Mà ©nsula 31. Guà ­a para la mà ©nsula 32. Eje de transmisià ³n de los avances FRESAS Las fresas tienen formas algo complicadas y puede decirse que està ¡n compuestas por un conjunto de elementos, cada uno de los cuales intervienen en diferente medida en el corte del material. Los distintos elementos de las fresas se designan con tà ©rminos tà ©cnicos que, en conjunto, forman la nomenclatura o terminologà ­a de las fresas. Varios de ellos pueden ser: Cuerpo de la fresa Arista de corte Periferia Dià ¡metro Caras y ancho de las fresas Cara del diente o cara del corte Cara de incidencia à ngulo de incidencia à ngulo de desprendimiento de viruta à ngulo de filo à ngulo de hà ©lice Prà ¡ctica NO. 20 FRESADO PLANO Objetivo Hacer una pieza con una cara plana Materiales y equipos Barra de aluminio Fresa frontal de dos cortes Refrigerante Fresadora Procedimiento 1 º Se monta una prensa o tornillo de sujecià ³n en la mesa de la fresadora y se sujeta la barra en la prensa 2 º Se monta la fresa en el eje porta fresas 3 º Se gradà ºa la velocidad en la caja de cambio de velocidades 4 º Con la manivela para la traslacià ³n vertical de la mensura se le da la profundidad de corte a la pieza 5 º Con el volante para la traslacià ³n horizontal de la mesa se procede a darle el corte a la pieza Los pasos 4 y 5 se repiten hasta que la pieza llegue al grosor deseado. Nota: Este procedimiento se emplea tambià ©n para el fresado frontal y para una combinacià ³n de ambos al mismo tiempo (fresado plano y frontal). Lo à ºnico que cambia es el emplear la fresadora. RANURA EN FORMA DE V Objetivo Hacer un canal en forma de V a lo largo de toda la pieza Materiales y equipos Pieza rectangular Fresa angular doble Refrigerante Fresadora Procedimiento 1 º Se sujeta la pieza a la mesa de la fresadora 2 º Se monta la frase angular doble en el eje porta fresas 3 º Se gradà ºa la velocidad en la caja de cambio de velocidades 4 º Con la manivela para la traslacià ³n vertical de la mà ©nsula se le da la profundidad de corte a la pieza 5 º Se acciona la palanca para el desplazamiento automà ¡tico horizontal de la mesa y se efectà ºa el corte a lo largo de la pieza Nota: Este procedimiento es el mismo a seguir para las siguientes operaciones: Hacer una ranura semicircular Hacer tornos de seccià ³n semicircular Hacer chaveteros Hacer ranuras en forma de T Hacer ranuras en cola de milano La à ºnica diferencia que hay entre estas operaciones es la forma de la fresa. Prà ¡ctica NO. 22 ENGRANAJE Objetivo Hacer un pià ±Ãƒ ³n o engranaje Materiales y equipos Barra de aluminio Cuchilla para cilindrar Fresa de modulo Refrigerante Torno Fresadora Mandril Broca Procedimiento 1 º Se coloca la barra en el plato del torno 2 º Se monta la cuchilla para cilindrar en la torre en forma para cilindrar 3 º Se gradà ºa la velocidad en la caja de cambio y la profundidad de corte en el carro transversal 4 º Se acciona la palanca de arranque y se procede a trabajar la pieza con el carro longitudinal hasta llegar al dià ¡metro requerido para el pià ±Ãƒ ³n o engranaje 5 º Se coloca la cuchilla en posicià ³n para refrentar y se procede a hacer dicho operacià ³n hasta llegar al espesor requerido 6 º Se hace un agujero pasante en el centro de la pieza de dià ¡metro que ajuste en el eje que va a ser montado el pià ±Ãƒ ³n. Este agujero se hace con una broca montado en un mandril el cual va montado en el cabezal mà ³vil 7 º Se desmonta la pieza del torno y se fija en el divisor que està ¡ sobre la mesa de la fresadora 8 º Se coloca la fresa de mà ³dulo en el eje porta fresa y se gradà ºa la velocidad y la profundidad de corte 9 º La cara plana de la pieza debe quedar perpendicular a la fresa 10 º Con los cà ¡lculos obtenidos de antemano se procede a trabajar la pieza. Despuà ©s del primer corte se debe de dar el nà ºmero de vueltas necesario al plato divisor, para dar el segundo corte y formar el primer diente; este à ºltimo procedimiento se realiza hasta que todos los dientes queden formados LIMADORA Prà ¡ctica No. 23 Objetivo Hacer una pieza de superficie plana 1. Mesa (Con letras A, B, C y D) Materiales y equipos Una barra de acero Una cuchilla Refrigerante (aceite o taladrina) Limadora Procedimiento 1 º Se fija la pieza en la mesa 2 º Se gradà ºa el avance de la mesa, la profundidad de corte y el nà ºmero de golpes del cabezal o carnero 3 º Se repite el nà ºmero de corte hasta llegar a la longitud y el espesor requerido Prà ¡ctica No. 24 Objetivo: Hacer un maquinado[1] en la fresadora CNC Procedimiento: La seguridad primero * Asegà ºrese de que todos saben dà ³nde està ¡ y cà ³mo se activa el botà ³n de parada de emergencia * Nunca deje objetos extraà ±os en el à ¡rea de maquinado (calibres, cepillos, latas de lubricantes, piezas ya maquinadas, etc.) * En ninguna circunstancia trate de acceder a la zona de maquinado mientras haya partes en movimiento * Use las herramientas provistas para ajustar puntas y fresas. La secuencia de operaciones: 1. Comience la ejecucià ³n con el software de maquinado, en realidad virtual (VRT o VRM) 2. Cargue, cree o edite su programa de CNC 3. Actualice la configuracià ³n de herramientas que tiene cargada el software 4. Simule el programa de maquinado en 2D o 3D (aunque es menos vistosa, la simulacià ³n en 2D es sumamente à ºtil y clara) 5. Encienda su mà ¡quina de CNC 6. Lleve los ejes a la posicià ³n de reposo (desde la lengà ¼eta Home) 7. Prepare las herramientas de la mà ¡quina, de manera que se correspondan con la configuracià ³n que cargà ³ en el software 8. Cargue la pieza de materia prima en el plato o banco 9. Ajuste el offset de la pieza y las herramientas Ejecute el maquinado Practica NO. 25 Objetivo: Hacer un torneado cà ³nico en el torno CNC Procedimiento: Funcionamiento del ciclo G81 en cada paso de torneado. Forma en la que se realiza cada paso de torneado: * 1-2: Desplazamiento en avance rà ¡pido (G00). * 2-3: Desplazamiento al avance programado en G01. * 3-4: Si se programa el parà ¡metro D, el desplazamiento es en avance rà ¡pido (G00) Si no se programa el parà ¡metro D, el desplazamiento es al avance programado en G01, siguiendo el perfil (este es nuestro caso). 4-5: Desplazamiento de retroceso en avance rà ¡pido (G00). Practica NO.26 Objetivo: Hacer un torneado de tramos curvos Introduccià ³n: Funcionamiento general del ciclo fijo G84. * Este ciclo realiza el cilindrado de un tramo curvo. * El tramo se definirà ¡ programando los valores de los diferentes parà ¡metros que componen el ciclo (los parà ¡metros se explican en mà ¡s adelante). * El ciclo mantiene el paso de profundidad especificado entre las sucesivas pasadas del cilindrado. * El ciclo realiza el cilindrado en desbaste y permite seleccionar, si se desea realizar una pasada de acabado con la misma herramienta tras finalizar el desbaste o no. Forma en la que se realiza cada paso de torneado: * 1-2: Desplazamiento en avance rà ¡pido (G00). * 2-3: Desplazamiento al avance programado en G01. * 3-4: Si se programa el parà ¡metro D, el desplazamiento es en avance rà ¡pido (G00). Si no se programa el parà ¡metro D, el desplazamiento es al avance programado en G01, siguiendo el perfil (este es nuestro caso). * 4-5: Desplazamiento de retroceso en avance rà ¡pido (G00). TALADRADORA Prà ¡ctica: 27 Objetivo Hacer un agujero a una plancha de metal Materiales y equipos Plancha de metal Broca Mandril Prensa o tornillo de sujecià ³n Refrigerante Taladradora Procedimiento 1 º Se monta el mandril en el eje principal y la broca en el mandril 2 º Se monta la prensa en la mesa superior y la plancha se sujeta en la prensa 3 º Con el volante para el avance sensitivo se procede a hacer el agujero Esmerilado: Es un proceso de remocià ³n de material en el cual las partà ­culas abrasivas està ¡n contenidas en una rueda de esmeril que opera a velocidad superficial muy alta. La rueda de esmeril tiene forma de disco balanceado con toda precisià ³n para soportar altas velocidades de rotacià ³n. Mà ©todo de Ruta Critica[2] para el cà ¡lculo de las actividades en el Laboratorio. El anà ¡lisis comienza con una descripcià ³n del proyecto en tà ©rmino de de actividades y eventos. A- Comienzo de obtencià ³n de materiales B- Terminacià ³n de obtencià ³n de materiales pieza 1 C- Terminacià ³n de obtencià ³n de materiales pieza 2 D- Terminacià ³n de trabajo de mà ¡quina pieza 1 E- Terminacià ³n de trabajo de mà ¡quina pieza 2 F- Comienzo de ensamble G- Terminacià ³n de ensamble H- Terminacià ³n de inspeccià ³n y prueba Este modelo puede variar dependiendo del tipo de pieza Control de Calidad en Cada Prà ¡ctica El control[3] incluye una secuencia universal de pasos: v Elegir un sujeto de control v Seleccionar una unidad de medida v Establecer una meta para el sujeto de control v Seleccionar un sensor v Medir el desempeà ±o real v Interpretar la diferencia entre està ¡ndar y real v Realizar una accià ³n sobre esa diferencia [4]Proceso de Produccià ³n El proceso de produccià ³n es el procedimiento tà ©cnico que se utiliza en el proyecto para obtener los bienes y servicios a partir de insumos, y se identifica como la transformacià ³n de una serie de insumos para convertirlos en productos mediante una determinada funcià ³n de produccià ³n. Conclusiones: Las prà ¡cticas presentadas cumplen con el marco de referencia educativo dominicano que tiene como funcià ³n garantizar la eficiencia y la eficacia global del mismo. Se ha tomado en cuenta la evaluacià ³n de los procesos docentes y los servicios que intervienen en la actividad educativa para satisfacer las necesidades de la sociedad: v El rendimiento de los aprendizajes alcanzados por los estudiantes; v El grado de coherencia alcanzado entre los fines educativos, las estrategias para alcanzarlos y los resultados; v La inversià ³n de recursos, su racionalidad y adecuacià ³n que garanticen la puesta en prà ¡ctica de la accià ³n educativa; v El peso de la innovacià ³n, la investigacià ³n y la experimentacià ³n educativas; v Las caracterà ­sticas socioeconà ³mica, afectiva, fà ­sica y social del alumno; v Las caracterà ­sticas personales y profesionales de los educadores, la calidad de vida y las facilidades de que dispongan; v La programacià ³n acadà ©mica, los contenidos curriculares y los materiales didà ¡cticos, deben estar en constante actualizacià ³n; v Los procesos de aprendizaje. v Las condiciones fà ­sicas desde el punto de vista del ambiente en que se desarrolla la actividad educativa, incluyendo aulas, laboratorios, bibliotecas, canchas deportivas, à ¡reas de recreacià ³n, servicios de agua potable e iluminacià ³n y equipamiento; v El grado de compromiso y la intervencià ³n de la familia, el hogar y la comunidad en el proceso educativo; v La orientacià ³n educativa y profesional; La investigacià ³n educativa que se aplica para identificar los problemas del sistema y adoptar los correctivos a los mismos. v Se deberà ¡n integrar las prà ¡cticas de corto tiempo para que se puedan ejecutar todas las prà ¡cticas durante el semestre ya que el nà ºmero de prà ¡cticas excede al nà ºmero de semanas. 6. Administracià ³n de las Adquisiciones del Proyecto El conjunto[5] de actividades comprendidas en el quehacer de la funcià ³n adquisiciones conforman, normalmente, el segundo bloque de la là ­nea crà ­tica en proyectos complejos. En un sentido amplio, su tarea consiste n abastecer la obra con todos los elementos necesarios (maquinaria, equipos, repuestos, instrumentos, instalaciones, suministros de construccià ³n y servicios), en las condiciones de costo, calidad y oportunidad, requeridas por el proyecto. Una caracterà ­stica sobresaliente de las adquisiciones es su estrecha interrelacià ³n con las demà ¡s funciones, sobre todo en proyectos intensivos en bienes de capital de origen importado, tecnolà ³gicamente complejos, con programacià ³n acelerada (ruta rà ¡pida) o financiamientos condicionados. Las formas en que es posible abordar el abastecimiento de maquinarias, equipos y suministros, son variadas, si se tiene en cuenta el tamaà ±o del proyecto, la existencia y confiabilidad de los servicios de la organizacià ³n perm anente, la complejidad de las adquisiciones, y la modalidad que se defina para los contratos de construccià ³n. Diseà ±o de Formularios y Mecanismos de Control Adquisicià ³n de equipos El laboratorio[6] debe disponer de polà ­tica y procedimiento para la seleccià ³n y adquisicià ³n de los equipos, que incluya: * Especificacià ³n de las caracterà ­sticas necesarias, de acuerdo con los requisitos de tolerancias e incertidumbres. * Seleccià ³n y evaluacià ³n de los proveedores. El laboratorio debe evaluar a los proveedores y mantener un registro de estas evaluaciones. Es recomendable, siempre que sea posible, seleccionar los suministradores que cumplen con la Norma UNE-EN ISO/IEC 17025 o que tienen implantado un sistema de calidad acorde, por ejemplo, con las normas ISO 9000. * Requisitos solicitados al proveedor, tales como: documentacià ³n, certificado de calibracià ³n o verificacià ³n, periodo de garantà ­a, periodo de entrega, etc. En la adquisicià ³n de los equipos nuevos el laboratorio deberà ­a exigirle, a los fabricantes o distribuidores, la disponibilidad del Manual de Instrucciones del equipo en espaà ±ol. * Anà ¡lisis de las ofertas frente a las especificaciones y seleccià ³n de los equipos. Todas las actividades, relacionadas con la compra de los equipos y materiales, convienen documentarlas y archivarlas. Recepcià ³n de equipos Cuando el laboratorio recibe el equipo o material debe constatar, en primer lugar, que: * Se corresponde con las caracterà ­sticas y especificaciones del pedido o solicitud de adquisicià ³n, * Va acompaà ±ado de la documentacià ³n adecuada y completa (por ejemplo los certificados de calibracià ³n o conformidad, si son necesarios). * El laboratorio debe tener establecido un procedimiento que * Asegure que los equipos recibidos no sean utilizados o puestos en * servicio hasta que: * Se haya comprobado que no han sufrido ningà ºn daà ±o y funcionan * correctamente, * Hayan sido calibrados o verificados, cuando se considere necesario, * De que cumplen las especificaciones requeridas, debiendo mantenerse un registro de las medidas adoptadas para comprobarlo. Los equipos recibidos, cuando ya està ©n disponibles o instalados para realizar la funcià ³n para la cual han sido adquiridos, deben darse de alta, codificarse y etiquetarse, y ser incluidos en el inventario de los equipos disponibles del laboratorio. Inventario y codificacià ³n de equipos El inventario o listado (o base de datos) de los equipos disponibles debe incluir, como mà ­nimo, los equipos utilizados para realizar ensayos y/o calibraciones que tengan una relacià ³n directa con los resultados, asà ­ como aquellos equipos auxiliares que requieren de algà ºn tipo de control, mantenimiento, verificacià ³n o calibracià ³n. En el inventario deberà ¡ constar la fecha de su elaboracià ³n y, como mà ­nimo, el cà ³digo del equipo, la denominacià ³n del equipo, la marca, el modelo, el no. de serie, y la fecha de alta. El cà ³digo del laboratorio debe identificar al equipo de forma univoca y permitir relacionarlo con la documentacià ³n que se va generando (etiquetas, ficha/registro, procedimientos de funcionamiento, de mantenimiento y calibracià ³n, registros de datos, certificados de calibracià ³n, diarios de uso, etc.) y con su historial a lo largo de los aà ±os (averà ­as, sustituciones, modificaciones, etc.). El laboratorio debe mantener actualizado el inventario de los equipos disponibles, para ello serà ¡ necesario establecer un procedimiento del control y/o comunicacià ³n (por ejemplo, mediante impresos) de las altas, bajas o traslado